The Role of Knowledge Management in Libraries: Emerging Perspectives

                                                          Anil Kumar Jharotia
Abstract
Knowledge management (KM) is about enhancing the use of organizational knowledge through sound practices of information management and organizational learning. It has emerged as a new area in the field of Library & information science.
Knowledge management as used as a base line in this paper is ‘knowledge management is the identification and communication of explicit and tacit knowledge residing within processes, people, products and services.’ Knowledge management in libraries normally focuses on effective research and development of knowledge , creation of knowledge bases, exchange and sharing of knowledge between library staffs and its users, training of library staff, quick processing of knowledge and realizing of its sharing.
Keywords : Knowledge Management, Library Environment, Information Management, Tacit Knowledge, Explicit Knowledge
Introduction
Library is one of the most important indicators of the stage of evolution, the society is passing through. The changes brought in due to the ongoing social evolution could be technological or managerial, library is sure to reflect the development. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the nature of changes undergone by the society over the years to know where the library stands.
The rapid development of Information Communication Technology (ICT) has changed the Information Society into a Knowledge Society. Accordingly, keeping pace with the changes, the emphasis of libraries has been shifted from documents to information and then to knowledge. Knowledge Management (KM) in libraries does not mean to management of existing knowledge of the library, rather it refers to effective identification, acquisition, organization, and development, using, storing and sharing of both existing and new knowledge. The aim of such effort is to create an approach to transforming and sharing of tacit and explicit knowledge and to raise innovation capability by utilizing the wisdom of the people of an organization.
What is Knowledge?
Knowledge starts as data- raw facts and numbers – for examples, the market value an institution’s endowment. Information is data put into context – in the same example, the endowment per student at a particular institution. Information is readily captured in documents or in databases; even large amounts are fairly easy to retrieve with modern information technology systems.
Knowledge process are two types :
1. Explicit
2. Tacit

Explicit knowledge is :
ü Packaged
ü Easily codified
ü Communicable
ü Transferable
Tacit knowledge is:
ü Personal
ü Context-specific
ü Difficult to formalize
ü Difficult to communicate
ü More difficult to transfer
Origins of knowledge management
The term “Knowledge management” (KM) is used to describe everything from the application of new technology to the harnessing of the intellectual capital of an organization (Sallis and Jones).
The field of knowledge management is seen as an essential part of a much broader concept known as intellectual capital. Knowledge management is about the management of the intellectual capital, controlled by the company. However, too often the delineation between the two terms is unclear and seldom adequately addressed.
Although Knowledge Management concepts have been around for a long time, the terms “Knowledge Management” seems to have arisen in the mid-70s. Nicholas Henry (1974) uses “Knowledge Management” in a manner that resembles our current understanding of the expression.
Knowledge Management Definitions
Many people perceive knowledge in many forms. As such it is only logical that knowledge management has many definitions according to the field it is being used in.
Knowledge management systems that are presently available or implemented, are just large electronic libraries of best practices, and needs to be rebuilt on more accurate understanding of what knowledge is. The following definitions are quoted from the works of a few experts in this field:
According to De Jarnet – “knowledge management is a process of knowledge creation, which is followed by knowledge interpretation, knowledge dissemination and use, and knowledge retention and refinement.”
“Knowledge management is the process of critically managing knowledge to meet existing needs, to identify and exploit existing and acquired knowledge assets and to develop new opportunities. (Quintas et al.)
“Knowledge management in the activity which is concerned with strategy and tactics to manage human centered assets.” - by Brooking
“Knowledge management is the process through which organizations extract value from their intellectual assets.”- by Kaplan
Working definition of knowledge management (km)
KM is a process of creating, storing, sharing, applying and re-using organizational knowledge to enable an organization to achieve its goals and objectives. KM is extending the concept of "knowledge" beyond existing concepts like "memory", "storage", and "information". The term covers such areas as tacit knowledge (expertise), implicit knowledge, explicit knowledge and procedural knowledge.
Knowledge Management in Libraries
Libraries deal with the document, information and knowledge. Knowledge can be divided in to two categories, Tacit knowledge and Explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is the ‘know-how’ acquired by persons. It is usually intuitive and generally demonstrated in how an individual makes accomplishment in his work, even though this knowledge is not recorded anywhere. But one of the goals of the knowledge management is to make tacit knowledge more widely available. Explicit knowledge is systematically documented records in any kind of format, which guide the users to gain the knowledge, as the individuals need and to expand the knowledge base further.
Knowledge management is the management of processes that govern the creation, dissemination, and utilization of knowledge by merging technologies, organizational structures and people to create the most effective learning, problem solving, and decision-making in an organization and library.
Libraries, the institutions for knowledge management deal with both categories of knowledge, tacit knowledge for the library personnel and the explicit knowledge for the users. Knowledge management in libraries is about the acquisition, creation, packaging or application or reuse of knowledge.
Characteristics of Knowledge Management in Libraries
The role of knowledge management in libraries will become more and more important along with the development of knowledge economy. It is a new management mode, boasts the following superiority and characteristics incomparable with conventional management:
Human Resource Management is the Core of Knowledge Management in Libraries
The most important resource in the knowledge economy system is the talents who grasp knowledge. The talent competition has become the focus of market competition in the knowledge economy era. In the knowledge economy era, the libraries will attach importance to vocational training and lifelong education of library staffs to raise their scientific knowledge level and ability of acquiring and innovating knowledge. They also will and fully respect the human value, guide and bring into play wisdom potentialities of library staffs, take developing knowledge resources in the brains of library staffs as an important way for rising work efficiency. An all-round improvement of library staff's quality and positioning of the human value will become important objectives of knowledge management in libraries.
The Objective of Knowledge Management in Libraries is to Promote Knowledge Innovation
Knowledge innovation is the core of the knowledge economy society. As bases for collection, processing, storage and distribution of knowledge and information, libraries represent an indispensable link in the scientific system chain, an important link in the knowledge innovation. Secondly, libraries take part in scientific research process directly. The library work is a component of knowledge innovation. Thirdly, libraries must pay attention to diffusion and conversion of knowledge. They act as bridges for turning the results of knowledge innovation into realistic productive forces. Knowledge management in libraries is to promote relationship in and between libraries, between library and user, to strengthen knowledge internetworking and to quicken knowledge flow. In the knowledge economy era, libraries will carry out researches on development and application of information resources, construction of virtual libraries, protection of intellectual property rights in the electronic era etc., thus founding the base for knowledge innovation
Information Technology is a Tool for Knowledge Management in Libraries
Knowledge acquisition is the starting point of knowledge management in libraries. The application of information technologies enlarges the scope of knowledge acquisition, rises knowledge acquisition speed and reduces knowledge acquisition cost. It is impossible to accomplish such important tasks by using man's brains only in the modern society in which the knowledge changes with each passing day. It will be possible to link closely knowledge sources and knowledge workers by computer networks, thus constructing knowledge networks in libraries based on realization of single-point informatization
The knowledge acquired must be accumulated and converged into knowledge warehouses of libraries. The priority of information technologies in the field of knowledge storage not only finds expression in quantity, but also in retrieval, sorting and security of the knowledge. Information technology is also indispensable in the application and exchange of knowledge and other fields. It functions as a source and tool for knowledge innovation.
Contents of Knowledge Management in Libraries
As a completely new method of management, knowledge management in libraries leaves much to be desired in its theoretical system. In my opinion, knowledge management in libraries should include such respects as follows:
1. Knowledge Innovation Management
2. Knowledge Dissemination Management
3. Knowledge Application Management
4. Human Resources Management .


Conclusion
In the short, we can say that Knowledge Management (KM) as a fluid of framed experience, values contextual information and expert insight that provides framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. Knowledge management requires a holistic and multidisciplinary approach to management processes and an understanding of the dimensions of knowledge work. Knowledge management should be the evolution of good management practices sensibly and purposively applied. One of the aims of knowledge management in libraries is to promote the knowledge exchange among library staffs, strengthen innovation consciousness and abilities for learning, making the knowledge most efficiently applied to the library and rebuilding the library into a learning organization. The knowledge management programme should provide a sound foundation for knowledge evolution.
References
1. Awad, Elias M. and Ghaziri, Hassan M. Knowledge Management, Pearson 2008.
2. Clegg, S. (et al.) Management Knowledge for the future : innovation, embryos and new paradigms. London: Sage 1996.
3. Cao Yi. The Reorientation of Libraries in the Knowledge Economy Era, Library Work & Research, 1999
4. Harari, O. The brain Based Organization, Management Review. 83, 6, 1994.
5. Kamalavijayan, D. Information and Knowledge Management, Macmillan 2005.
6. Lucy, M. Facilitating Knowledge Management and Knowledge Sharing : new opportunities for information professionals. Online 21,5, 1997
7. Quintas, P., Lefree, P. and Jones, G. Knowledge Management : a strategic agenda. Journal of Long Range Planning 30 (3) : 1997.
8. Rodney, M. and Sandra, M., Critical review of knowledge management methods : the learning organization 6(3) : 1999.
9. Rowley, J. Learning organization to knowledge entrepreneur : journal of knowledge management, 4, (1) 2000.
10. Sahu, Ashok Kumar (Ed.) Informatiom Management Millennium : opportunities and challenges for library professionals, Ess Ess Publications 2008.
11. Wang Yunhua. Knowledge Economy and the Development of the Library, Library Work & Research. 1999
12. Wang Delu. The Collection and Processing of Knowledge. February 4,1999.
13. http://www.bsti.ac.cn/bsti_kmchina/gei /048_001.htm
This paper has been published in journal : * Anil Kumar Jharotia, “The Role of Knowledge Management in Libraries: Emerging Perspectives” Lingaya’s Journal of Professional Studies, Harayana Vol.3 No.1 July-Dec.2009  (ISSN 0975539X) pp.97-101

Academic Library Websites as Marketing Tools

Dr. Fatemeh Nooshinfard
Department of Library and Information Science
Science and Research Branch
Islamic Azad University
Tehran, Iran

Soraya Ziaei
LIS PhD student
Department of Library and Information Science
Science and Research Branch
Islamic Azad University
Tehran, Iran

Introduction

Every institution and organization needs a website. The same is true for libraries and information centers. Since the 1990s, most libraries and information centers has been offering services via websites[1]-[2]. At the same time, many libraries have found  that they can achieve their goals better by means of using marketing principles and techniques; in addition, they can have  more successful communication with their users and understanding of their needs. Each library's website is a window opened on that library; also it can work as a good guide in the Internet for users.

What Is Library Marketing?

Marketing is the analysis, planning, implementation, and control of carefully formulated programs designed to bring about voluntary exchanges of values with target markets for the purpose of achieving organizational objectives[3].
According to Folk[4] and Lancaster[5], marketing is a systematic process which is a combination of planning, concentrating on customer needs and her satisfaction.
Kaur[6] Sarita state that marketing is concerned with customers and the satisfaction of their needs with appropriate products and services.
Libraries and information centers have begun to see that marketing of information products and services is essential to improve user satisfaction and promote the use of services by current and potential users[7].
Marketing takes service from the library to the customer. It involves market research, analyzing programs and services, setting goals and objectives, and using persuasive communication.[8].

Marketing in Academic Libraries

The concept of marketing has been transferred from business  to public service organizations. Since 1970, it has been seen that marketing principles can be applied to non-profit organizations[9].
In recent years,marketing has been important for reasons like self protection, the existence ofcompetitors, an increase in customers' expectations, and wide access to information.
Kotler and Fox[10] provide the following definition of marketing in relation to higher education:
"Marketing is the analysis, planning, implementation, and control of carefully formulated programs designed to bring about voluntary exchanges of values with target markets to achieve institutional objectives".
Dodsworth[11] believes that the changes in society have lead to creation of opportunities and threats for libraries. Other surveys that show a majority of people using search engines in preference to library resources has beenthe cause of  alarm among librarians who see libraries in danger of losing their place as an information provider[12].
Academic libraries have found that users are unsatisfied with their collections and are at the same time unaware of library programs and services.
Williams[13] believes academic libraries spend millions of dollars a year on electronic resources, yet many of them are underused and unknown to users.
Ewers and Austen[14] claim that if libraries want to be client-oriented, they should understand their clients'  needs, their environment, their resources and strengths, and the social factors that influence users. Libraries should also identify their strength as a competitive business, employ and train staff in client relations and marketing[15].
Marketing  is useful to university libraries to improve their image and to attract more users. Marketing helps  librarians improve their reputation within their organizations and as a profession within society[16].
Schmidt[17] believes the products and services provided by libraries have changed considerably, due to changes in education, the impact of technology, new methods for information provision, and declining budgets[18].
University libraries in the digital age are eager to be current in information technology and tools for conducting research and providing current information. This has led them to focus on marketing their services[19].
Marketing in libraries can lead to a better understanding of users and their requirements. Effective marketing can increase the use of services, can help train customers and non-customers, can change user perceptions and ideas, and promote the reputation of the library and its staff[20]
In such environments, libraries must identify the requirements of their users. This puts the customer at the center of library activities[21].

Academic Library Clientele

Consumer loyalty is essential for service organizations. In order to achieve it, many organizations try to go beyond customer expectations. Libraries must categorize their customers to provide each group with its desired and required services. Information technology, including the use of websites, can help provide better service. Academic library users need the resources that the library provides. It is up to the library to make sure the resources are findable and usable. If they are not, the library has wasted funds and the users are discontented.
User expectations will be higher when libraries use websites and electronic resources, which provide:

• 24/7 access
• high speed
• high quality

The Role of the Library Website

Users have less reason to visit the library, since they can access resources without going to the library. How can librarians interact with users and guide them, when a majority of users does not go to the library? How can users be sure they are accessing high-quality information? Fialkoff [12] says that librarians are poor at marketing and still have not figured out how to tell people what librarieshave to offer in a way that resonates.
Attracting attention to a virtual environment is difficulty, because there is no mutual communication between users and librarians. The only way to attract users' attention and trust is through words, sentences, pictures, pages, information, timely responses to emails, moderating the delivery process, and emergency delivery.
Lancaster talked about a paperless society several decades ago. In today's electronic environment, the value of having access to information is greater than having access to physical space. This brings up two important issues: the diverse needs of academic users for library resources and the importance of user awareness of library resources. Timeliness and accuracy are also important. One of the tools in achieving these things is the library website.
As libraries shift  services to the Internet, the library website becomes a service in its own right. It becomes an importanttool in marketing other products of the library[22]. Websites are a key way to advertise. This principle should be applied to market electronic resources from the library's homepage[23] Academic librarians can help cater to the needs of different groups in the academic community, including students, teachers, and research scholars[24] Libraries do not work in isolation. They collaborate with consortia, vendors, other libraries, and their users. In academic libraries, it is possible to design a website with the help of advanced technologies and computers which can be a powerful marketing tool. However, libraries must be familiar with their customers and know their needs in advance.
A user comes to a physical library where the material is openly and clearly displayed with good signs and items are easy to find. This user sees a librarian and asks questions. A website cannot interact with users as easily.
An effective website can lead to mutual satisfaction in for customer and librarian:
A: The benefits of marketing to library users
1. Convenience
2. Ability to control information and technology
3. Increased ability to select information
4. Increased ability to analyze
5. Increased time of access
6. Increased sense of certainty
7. Decreased human error
8. Decreased need for interaction
B:The benefits of marketing for specialist (librarians)
1. Facilitating tasks
2. Saving time and reducing communication gap
3. Diminished time to reply
4. Fulfilling  individual requests
5. Offering services at any time
6. Ability to perform several tasks simultaneously
7. Creating positive image of library in people's minds
Thus, marketing helps ensure that users:

• Know what information exists
• Know how this information will look in the interface
• Know where to find this information on the site and on the page,
• Know how to use  information
• Use website as a navigator for all users.

Finally, academic libraries can use the website to help fulfill Ranganathan's laws. According to Crawford and Gorman[25] these five laws can be adapted to the present and future libraries:

• Libraries serve humanity
• Respect all forms by which knowledge is communicated
• Use technology intelligently to enhance service
• Protect free access to knowledge; and
• Honor the past and create the future

References

1. Susan M.Ryan. "Library web Site administration: A Strategic Planning Model for the Smaller Academic library," Journal Academic Librarianship 29(4) (Jul2003):207.218
2. J M.Welch,"The Electronic Welcome Mat: The Academic Library Web Site as a Marketing and Public Relations Tool", Journal of Academic Librarianship, 31(3)(2005):225.228
3. Philip Kotler,"Marketing for non-profit organization(Ed2,New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India, 1985).
4. H Folk,"The impact of computers on book and journal publications (In the Economics of library automation: Proceedings of the 1976 clinic on library applications of data processing. edited by J.L. Divilbiss. University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library Science, 1976).
5. F.W.Lancaster, " Whither libraries? Or, wither libraries", College and Research Libraries, 39(1978):345.356.
6. Amritpal Kaur& Rani Sarita," Marketing of information services and products in university libraries of Punjab and Chandigarh (India): An attitudinal assessment of library professionals", LibraryManagement, 9(6/7) (2008):515.537
7. Joseph Jestin, " Marketing of Information Products and Services for Libraries in India",Library Philosophy and Practice,50(11)(2002), Available:http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~mbolin/jestin2.PDF
8. S.Walters, Library marketing that works! (New York,London: Neal-Schuman,2004)
9. Samuel Olu Adeyoyin," Strategic planning for marketing library services". Library Management, 26(8/9) (2005):494.507.
10. P.Kotler & K.A. Fox," Strategic Marketing for Educational Institutions," (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995).
11. Elle Dodsworth,"Information Polices Marketing academic libraries: a case necessary plan,"Journal of Academic librarianship, 24(4)(July1998):320-322
12. F. Fialkoff, "What's so bad about books?," Library Journal, 131 (1)(2006):8.
13. Lesley Williams,"Making 'E' Visible," Library Journal,131.11 (2006): 40-43.
14. B. Ewers, & G.Austen, "Market Orientation: A Framework for Australian University Library Management", 2004 URL (consulted January2007): http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/00000469/01/E wers_Market.PDF
15.Noa Aharony, "Librarians' attitudes towards marketing library services", 2009, Available:
http://lis.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/41/1/39.pdf
16. G.C. Kendadamath, "Marketing of library & information Services, Available: http://www.bhu.ac.in/InstituteofAgriculturalSciencesBHU/EXTENSION_EDUCATION/Winter%20School/WS_13.pdf ICES
17. Janine Schmidt, "Marketing Library and Information Services in Australian Academic Libraries," (2004) Available: http://www.library.uq.edu.au/papers/marketing_library_and_info_services.pdf
18. Janine Schmidt," Unlocking the Library: Marketing Library Services" (2004). Available: http://www.library.uq.edu.au/papers/unlocking_the_library.pdf
19. Wu,Mu-Chen, "A Study for University Library Marketing Indicators Model in Digital Age," The Business Review, Cambridge ,10,(1)(2008).
20. M.Steadley, Marketing: The power of 10, (UI Current LIS Clips: Library and Information Services Marketing, (2003). Available: http://www.lis.uiuc.edu/clips/2003_09.html
21. Dinesh K Gupta, "What is marketing in libraries? Concepts,orientations,and practices", Information Outlook, 6(11)(2002).
22. S. Ravichandran & Babu,"Marketing of Library and Information Services (2008), Available: http://www.indianmba.com/Faculty_Column/FC867/fc867.html
23. Jennifer C. Castaldo, "Marketing Electronic Resources from the Academic Library Home Page, A master paper for the M.S in L.S .degree, Advisor Diana Kelly, 2008. Available: http://etd.ils.unc.edu/dspace/bitstream/1901/468/1/masterspaperfinal.pdf
24. G. C. Kendadamath, MARKETING OF Library & Information Services, Available: http://www.bhu.ac.in/InstituteofAgriculturalSciencesBHU/EXTENSION_EDUCATION/Winter%20School/WS_13.pdf
25. Crawford, W., & Gorman, M. Future libraries: dreams, madness & reality. (Chicago and London, American Library Association, 1995).

The Next Step in Librarianship: Is The Traditional Library Dead?

L.A. Ogunsola
H.O. Library
Obafemi Awolowo University
Ile-Ife, Nigeria

Introduction

Traditionally, libraries were collections of books, manuscripts, journals, and other sources of recorded information. In the last 50 years, libraries have increasingly developed into a provider of information resources and services that do not even require a building. The terms digital library and virtual library are used to refer to the vast collections of information to which people gain access remotely.
As society values information more and more, the information industry has developed. It encompasses publishers, software developers, online information services, and other businesses that package and sell information products (Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 2007). It provides both an opportunity and a challenge to libraries. Although the development of digital libraries means that people do not have to go to a building for some kinds of information, users still need help in locating the information they want. In a traditional library, the catalogue is used to find traditional library materials, but much of the information that the Internet offers cannot be found through one commonly-accepted tool or resource. The increased availability of electronic information has led libraries and librarians to develop important relationships with computer centres. In some places, the computer centre is responsible for electronic information and the library is responsible for print information. In some educational institutions, librarians have assumed responsibility for both the library collection and computer services.
The changes in libraries and the roles of librarians originated in the US and other English-speaking countries, but electronic networks do not have geographical boundaries; and their influence has spread rapidly. With Internet connections across the globe, people who did not have access to traditional library services now have the opportunity to get information about all subjects, free of political censorship. Increasingly librarians have assumed the role of educator to teach users how to find information both in the library and over networks. Traditional libraries and librarians exist alongside the electronic libraries which are eroding the functions of both traditional and librarians.
This paper discusses the relationship between digital and traditional libraries. It takes a critical look at the belief that the information technology revolution has destroyed traditional libraries as well as the librarians working in them. The paper recommends ways provide enhanced access to national and international library and information resources and to share locally available resources with libraries all over the world using digital technology.

Digital Libraries

The world is going through an information technology revolution that has drastically changed many facets of the human life, from education, industry, economy, and politics to entertainments. In addition, the unprecedented capabilities of the information technology to process, store, refine and disseminate data, information and knowledge in a variety of ways across geographical boundaries had dramatically changed the ways in which governments, the public and the private sectors and libraries operate all over the world. As Ajayi (2002) has rightly put it, the emergence and convergence of information and communication technologies (ICT) has therefore remained at the centre of global social-economic transformations. As pointed out by Ogunsola and Okusaga (2008) libraries are now extending their traditional roles of facilitating self-education and individual enrichment by providing low-cost or free computer access to online resources. The potential of what can be achieved in information generation, acquisition, collection, processing, display and dissemination, was very exciting and intoxicating, and resulted in futuristic dreams. All these electronic developments form the basis of digital library which is equally termed virtual libraries. It is all these technological developments which gradually give birth to what is now known as digital library. At this juncture, one can ask what we mean by the term "digital library". Digital library can be defined as one in which all the texts and spoken books are stored as digital files, which will take a long time to achieve. A digital or virtual library is the online access provided by other facilities or it may mean a website which offers links to various sites with a large store of information in a catalogued or archived form. The term may refer to all  material related to any subject that is available on the Internet. A digital library generally is part of a network with linkages to other libraries.
The advances in the fields of telecommunications, computer technology, and satellite communications have revolutionized information delivery services in advanced countries. As asserted by Akpan (2001), information can be delivered across countries into houses and offices instantly. It must be realized that the sharing, however, has been uneven across the globe. Countries with advanced technology are years ahead of countries with developing economies. Within developing economies, some have moved further ahead than others. In Nigeria, the expression "virtual library" or "digital library" is relatively new, being a little more than a decade old. One of the writers who coined it is Nancy Schiller, who defined it in 1992 as "libraries in which computer and telecommunication technologies make access to a wide range of information resources possible".
According to Irokwe (2001), a digital library is a library that harnesses digital technologies as infrastructure to search, collect, organize, store and distribute cultural, historical and scientific information whether it is text, visual images or sound. The virtual library or digital library can be regarded as a child of necessity, arising from need to use technologies in accessing the explosion of information  for human survival and development. This requires that all operations of the library be computerized.
A virtual or digital library can therefore be defined as a collection of library resources in electronic/digital format at various locations, which can be accessed and used with great ease using computer information technologies for the purpose of teaching, study, research, learning, leisure, and decision-making.

Electronic Resources

Taking Nigeria as an example, improving the quality of libraries in the higher education system will improve the quality of the products of the system. In recent times and as attested to by the findings of a 2001 Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research/World Bank report on the quality of Nigerian Universities, the competencies demonstrated by university graduates are "lowering at an alarming rate". The poor state of academic libraries was implicated as a major cause. The Nigerian virtual library project is  a justifiable venture for bolstering higher education quality. In another sense, the virtual library will enable students, lecturers, and other scholars to profit more fully from electronic communications revolution by having access to databases critical for their research and teaching. Within the higher education system in majority of African universities, libraries are far from being up-to-date. Books, journals, abstracts and other collections are not current. The typical setting is to have a few fairly recent titles and a fairly large collection of old titles. There are gaps in sequence which could be critical for knowledge generation and dissemination. As a result of the above lapses, the importance of virtual or digital libraries in African universities can never be overemphasized. A digital library scheme will facilitate access to a vast collection of books and journal, titles from as far as back in time as possible. A subscribing library in Nigeria or any other African university  will be several times richer and current in its collection of books and journals than presently the case. Estimates by the www.virtuallibrary.com for 2001 showed that the installation and running cost of a virtual academic library in a university is a mere .015% of the cost of establishing a "real" academic library and less than 2% of the operating cost. All the higher education institutions in Nigeria have physical libraries which require about 1 billion Naira in capital, recurrent, and maintenance cost annually. This type of electronic library resources can be shared by all institutions at a fraction of the total cost required to support all the physical libraries within the higher education system in the country (Ogunsola and Okusaga, 2008).
Furthermore, it is projected that 1,000 electronic databases/resources are equivalent to 30,000 volumes of printed materials. These will require 2,650m2 of shelf space alone. Thus, minimal resources can be mobilized for maximum advantage in terms of library development in Nigeria and other developing countries. In recent times, post secondary educational institutions have been under tremendous pressure for change as a response to demising budget, need to reach students other than their traditional clientele, and adapt current development in information technology for their delivery of institution. As a result many institutions of higher learning worldwide have turned towards electronic networking in academic services. The virtual or digital library also provides a platform for sharing knowledge. It is not a one-way flow from resource-rich to resource-poor countries. Instead, it has been set up for uniformity in the interchange of ideas. Consequently while universities in Nigeria and other developing countries will take advantage of down loading materials from the developed world, such universities will have the opportunity of uploading output of research in the form of books, dissertation//theses and journals to the global network of virtual libraries.
Also, differences in access to information technology and the ability to participate fully in global electronic information networks is in itself a measure of the unequal distribution of power in today's increasingly connected global economy and polity. In Nigeria, for example, there are very few people with the advanced training that enables them to contribute fully to new technology about electronic information systems. It is precisely because of this situation of inequality that Nigeria and other developing countries should be included in developing new knowledge in these areas. It must also be realized that many of the print materials held in collections in Nigerian Universities, particularly older historical manuscripts, are deteriorating rapidly. Some materials cannot even be consulted by researchers for fear of accelerating their decline. This is the trend in many other African countries. Many research institutes and libraries, have suffered from deep funding cuts since 1980s, and collections of all kinds have not been adequately maintained. Preservation is central to maintaining the quality, longevity, integrity and accessibility of data. Digitalization within the framework of the virtual library project can be used to create a high-quality copy of an item, thus protecting the original and ensuring that the information that it contains is both permanently preserved and made accessible. Although traditional channels of communication will remain important, the new information and communication technologies hold great potential for broadly disseminating knowledge at low cost, and for reducing knowledge gaps within countries and between industrial and developing countries. In a broad sense as revealed by Ogunsola (2004) access to the right information at the right time gives people greater control over their destinies.
As a result of all these global technological changes, the purposes of higher education have been transformed. According to Capron (2000), mail, telephone, TV and radio, books, newspapers and periodicals are the traditional ways by which users sent and received information. However, data communication systems have been evolving since the mid-1960s.
It must be realized that Africa's development hinges on effectively participating in the information society, and this requires low-cost Internet access. Yet Africa has the most expensive Internet access in the world partly because its Internet traffic transits through Internet exchange points in the US or Europe. As a result, Africans must pay "long-distance" charges,  and data transfer speeds are slow. Thus, the digital divide continues to widen. This is one of the constraints militating against digital library development in our higher education institutions. As pointed out by Rosenberg (2005), Africa has 13% of the world's population but only 2% of the world's telephone lines and 1% of Internet connectivity. It is also noted that up country or newer university libraries and (in multi-site libraries) branch libraries lag behind in Internet connectivity. Programmes that assume all libraries within a region or countries that have the same needs and aspirations are unlikely to succeed. Therefore as most African countries still do not have good access to the Internet; online resources like digital libraries or the Internet are not yet the solutions to bridging the digital divide. Hence, one can confidently conclude that traditional libraries are still alive and this will continue for a long time especially in developing countries. The paper acknowledges that the Internet will eventually take over in Africa as the means of providing access to digital academic information. As such, African governments are urged to continue to look at ways in which they can improve their national access to reliable and cost-efficient online access.

Is the Traditional Library Dead?

Libraries worldwide have witnessed a great metamorphosis in recent years both in their collection development and in their service structure. As pointed out by Mulla (2006), over the last several years, a significant transformation has been noticed in collection development policies and practices. Print medium is increasingly giving way to the electronic form of materials. For instance, electronic journals, one of the cornerstones of the digital library, have grown steadily in number. Besides electronic journals there are online databases that are now available though the Web. Several digital library projects provide digital access to materials that already exist within traditional libraries in printed media.
The external environment has a tremendous impact on the practice of the profession. As pointed out by Aina (2004) library and information science borrows from a number of disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, computer science, business, management, mathematics, statistics, marketing, etc. Thus, anything that affects any of these disciplines has a direct influence on library and information science. Library and information science is one of the fastest growing professions in the world. In countries such as theUK and US, information is one of the biggest industries, so research is going onto improve library and information science, and the professional librarian is expected to keep pace with new findings, and products in the profession.
Libraries have undergone a metamorphosis from a manual system to a technologically-driven system. In Nigeria, this change has become more manifest only in the new millennium. Like a cyclone, the technology driven environment has enveloped the library and is taking it to unprecedented heights in knowledge acquisition, management, and communication. As revealed by Akintunde (2004), eventhe vocabulary of librarianship is changing: 'dissemination' is being replaced by 'communication' 'repository' by 'data', 'literature' by 'knowledge', 'search' by 'navigation', etc. This reflects the current approach to packaging and the tools used for managing knowledge. Knowledge itself has become more ubiquitous than was ever imagined twenty years ago. More significantly, the library has become globalized. The library today is a technologically driven one that uses the principles of traditional library services to organize knowledge and communicate it to clients in the global community. At this juncture, one can rightly ask the question: that can today traditional libraries be able to survive the onslaught of digital or virtual libraries? One can answer yes and no, depending on the locality, but the majority of African libraries are in real crisis and their future seems very bleak. In developed countries, traditional libraries will exist side by side with digital libraries because people continue to publish both in printed and electronic forms.
Since the early 1980s, libraries across Africa have experienced a very deep decline in resources and services. Funds provided are grossly inadequate. In fact, most libraries do not get up to half of their minimum requirements. In most of the places, available funds only cover staff salaries. As pointed out by Osundina (1973) the library of today should not merely store documents and preserve them, it must also devise means by which the contents of such documents can be rapidly and effectively transmitted for use. It is essential for students to be aware that electronic resources and print-based resources complement each other; hence, it is wrong to believe that traditional libraries are dead. Not all the university libraries, especially in Africa, have reached the stage where print journals and books are replaced with electronic ones, but the issues is becoming a real one. For instance, librarians can now answer questions through personal e-mail and mailing lists. By so doing they can now provide specialist backup for those on enquiry desks. A digital library can now carry out electronic searches for its users for their course work, assignments, and projects.
The above functions and relevance of electronic libraries are seriously eroding the usefulness of traditional libraries. Acquisitions is done with computers, with online selection, payment, and subscription (Olaosun, 2007). All these developments pushes the librarian away from the library users. Technology has made acquisition, processing, storage, indexing, and retrieval of information faster, cheaper, and more efficient. One can be tempted to agree that technology has virtually "murdered" traditional libraries as well as the librarians working in them; however, both librarians and traditional libraries must remain at the scene. They will remain relevant if only they understand what goes on around them. If they re-educate themselves as information managers, able to sift information, able to filter the bad information abounding on many websites, able to facilitate the human-machine interaction, they hold their own in the race.

Conclusion

Librarianship has undergone a radical change in recent years, which will be continued in the future. As libraries have changed, so too, has the role of the librarian. Increasingly librarians have assumed the role of educator to teach their users how to find information both in the library and over electronic networks. Public librarians have expanded their roles by providing local community information through publicly assessable computing systems. Some librarians are experts on computers and  software. Others are concerned with how computer technologies can preserve the human cultural records of the past or assure that library collections on crumbling paper or in old computer files can still be used by people many centuries in the future. The work of librarians has  moved outside library walls. Librarians have begun to work in the information industry as salespeople, designers of new information systems, researchers, and information analysts. They are also found in such fields as marketing and public relations and in such organizations as law firms, where staffs need rapid access to information.
It must be realized that despite the changes in the roles and functions of libraries over the course of history their cultural role has not. Libraries remain responsible for acquiring or providing access to books, periodicals, and other media that meet the educational, recreational, and informational needs of their users. They continue to keep the business, legal, historical, and religious record of a civilization. They are the place where a toddler can hear his or her first story and a scholar can carry out his or her research. New technologies are dramatically increasing the accessibility of information, and librarians are adapting to the evolving needs of users that emerge from the adoption of these new technologies. Technological advances have presented the opportunity of automating some aspects of traditional libraries.
By deciding to change to digital production, a traditional library would make it much easier to cooperate with other libraries around the world. The more that a library can communicate with others the more they will be able to learn what has already been done. One of the ways we waste time and money is to try to invent everything ourselves. Whatever you are trying to do in developing your library, you can guarantee that somebody else has already done something similar. If we are working with traditional methods and the only means that we have of sending materials to other institutions is by the post, then it is understandable that libraries tend to concentrate on their own affairs and their own public. It takes weeks to communicate with other libraries then the efforts becomes too much and it is faster to produce materials than to borrow it, if however, libraries can start to use the Internet to exchange information and materials, the exchange can happen in seconds. The digital library offers more possibilities for enhanced scholarly communication. The Internet and  related technologies such as electronic mail enable collaborative projects to be undertaken between geographically distant groups. All developing nations can derive tremendous advantages from this technology for updating the knowledge of its researchers and scientists. The entire world is going online. The agenda for global preparedness includes the development of telecommunications and Internet infrastructure. Technology is the backbone of digital library, and the centre piece of preparedness is the expansion of technology in Nigeria and other developing countries.

References

Aina, L.O. (2004). Coping with the challenges of library and information services delivery: The need for institutionalized professional development. Paper delivered at the Nigerian Library Association 42nd National Conference and AGM at Akure, Nigeria June 20-25, 2004: 5.
Ajayi, G.O. (2000). Challenges to Nigeria of globalization and the information age. Proceedings of workshop on National Information and Communication Infrastructures Policy Plans and Strategies. Abuja, Nigeria, March 28-30, 2000: 10.
Akintunde S.A. (2004). Libraries as tools for ICT development. Paper delivered at the Nigerian Library Association 42nd National Conference and AGM at Akure, Nigeria June 20-25, 2004: 10.
Akpan, E.O. (2001). The virtual library. Blueprint on the National Virtual Library Project. Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, Nigeria, Section C: 20.
Capron, H.L. (2000). Computers: Tools for an information age. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Irokwe, O.P. (2001). A blueprint for implementing digital libraries in Nigerian universities. Blueprint on the National Virtual Library Project. Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, Nigeria. Section C: 8
Mulla, K.R. (2006). E-resources and services in engineering college libraries: A case study. Electronic Journal of Academic and Special Librarianship 7(1).
Ogunsola, L.A. (2004). Nigerian university libraries and the challenges of globalization: The way forward. Electronic Journal of Academic and Special Librarianship 5(2-3)
Ogunsola, L.A., & Okusaga. T.O. (2008). Establishing virtual libraries in African universities: Problems and prospects. Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 1 (1). 2008: 43-52.
Olaosun, M.A. (2007). The librarian is dead, long live the librarian. A Valedictory Lecture by Michael Adebayo Olaosun at OAU Ile-Ife, Nigeria, Wednesday, 11 April, 2007: 1-14.
Osundina, O. (1973). The relationship between information science and librarianship: A viewpoint. Nigerian Libraries 9 (1&2): 47.
Rosenberg, D. (2005). Towards the digital library in Africa: An investigation to establish the current status of university libraries. Available: http://www.inasp.info/pubs.

Sources of Information in Science and Technology

Introduction

Information is an asset necessary for the development and prosperity of a society. It is an essential material required for making decisions from the government level to the personal level. Today, a country is considered prosperous, in socio-economic terms, if it is rich in information—especially in the field of science and technology. Dependence on information has increased in daily life. Due to technological advances, it has become a basic resource, and as such, information generated should be procured, organized, and disseminated properly.

Historically, communication in science was achieved through person–to–person contacts. This was an unorganized and informal means of sharing information which improved over time. In 1455, the invention of movable printing by Gutenberg in Germany brought a revolution in the history of written communication. This led to the production and dissemination of multiple copies of manuscripts, and, in this way, information was stored, organized, and disseminated through various means.

Information plays a significant role in all aspects of human activity. Whether it is research and development, business and industry, government affairs, or education and training, information has to be acquired, processed, stored, retrieved, and disseminated for effective communication. These activities will be accomplished only when the information is available in an adequate quantity and quality at the right time.  In the field of science and technology, information has the power to convert natural resources into usable and consumable products. Since individuals have to work in an information communication environment of their own, an accurate assessment of the information needs of users should be made.  Different categories of users have different information needs. The matching of information needs and sources of information is based on careful assessment of information needs.

Sources of Information in S & T

Many years ago, the number of scientists was limited, and information could be disseminated without large-scale organization. Personal individual endeavor was supplemented by organizing conferences, publication of proceedings (by learned societies and by professional institutions), and by the establishment of large libraries. In this way, a network of institutions and services grew, encompassing primary publications reporting original work, secondary publications like abstract journals, indexes, etc. At present, however, a multitude of sources of information in science and technology are found.
The whole literature of S & T is divided into three categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary.
Primary Sources
Primary sources comprise the first published records of original research and development. They represent the original unfiltered ideas and comprise of the most recent available information. Primary sources are unorganized sources and thus are difficult to be used without the help of secondary sources.  Types of primary sources include: periodicals, research reports, conference proceedings, patents, standards, theses and dissertations, trade literature, etc.
1. Periodicals
Periodicals make up the bulk of primary source literature of science and technology. Periodicals include journals, bulletins, transactions, proceedings, and other serial publications, which appear regularly. The contents of periodicals vary in the kind of material included and in technical level as well. Professional, scientific, and technical societies place emphasis on basic research and technical aspects of a subject, while the industrial and trade associations and private publishers lean towards the practical, personal, and popular side. Some other organizations like universities, research institutes, and government agencies publish their own work. Some of the examples of periodicals are:

1. Shetye, S. R. (Ed.) (2005). Journal of Earth System Science, 114.
2. Balaram, P. (Ed.). (2005). Current Science, 88.

Research reports
Research reports are an important part of the primary source literature in science and technology. They are of a less polished form as they are produced early in the research process. The vast growth in science and technology eventually revealed inadequacies in the system based mainly on journals; research reports emerged as the most successful alternative. They generally originate in research laboratories working under an organization and are generally distributed in microform or full-size copies to all organizations having interest in them. Examples of research reports in science and technology are:

1. Research Report NIFS Technical Series. (1990). Japan: NIFS
2. Research Reports on Information Sciences, Series A Mathematical Science. (2004). Tokyo: Institute of Technology.
3. Research Report of Utilization of radiation by Isotope Users group. (2004). Japan: Japan Atomic Industrial Forum
4. Research report of Utilization of radiation by medical users’ group. (2004). Japan: Japan Atomic Industrial Forum.

Patents
Patents have proven to be an immensely valuable information source for invention, technology, business, and legal actions. One quarter of the technological and scientific publications produced every year are published by patent offices around the world. Modern researchers and technologists emphasize the need for rapid and accurate information; patent specifications meet such needs. Patents relate information much faster than any other form. Journals are considered to contain the latest information, yet the value of the patent might equal or surpass that of journals (Saunderson, 1972). Patents are used to evaluate specific technology, identify and alternate technology and its sources, improve an existing product or process, develop new products or processes, and monitor development in a specific technology. They form a valuable source for retrieving information on the history of technology. Some well-known patent resources are:

1. Crowne, J. D. (Ed.) (2000). BNA’s Patent, Trademark and Copyright Journal.Washington: The Bureau of National Affairs.
2. European Patents handbook. (2000). New York: Chartered Institute of Patent Agents.
3. Food Patents Bulletin. (2000). England: Leatherhead Food R.A.
4. Hughes on copyright & Industrial design. (2000). Canada: Butterworths.
5. Patent office technical society. Journal. (2000). Calcutta: Patent office technical Society.

 

Standards
Standards are rules for quality, size, or shape of industrial products. These help in simplifying the product’s distribution by a manufacturer and eliminating the non-standardized items from the market. These are usually drawn up by organized agencies, governments, or quasi-governments like British Standard Institute (BSI) in Britain, Bureau of Standards in USA, and the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) in India. In India alone, BIS brings about 300 standards annually. Some of the standards in the field of science and technology are:

1. Ramsey, C. G. (1998). Architectural graphic Standards for architects, engineers, decorators, builders and draftsmen. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
2. British Standards Institution.  (1955). Summaries of British Standards for building materials and components for housing. London: The Institution.
3. Society of Motor manufacturers and traders.(1957).Standards for the British automobile industry. London: The Society.
4. Maule, R.W. (1997). Information networks and services: an over view of foundations, Standards and practices for modern information management. California: Information Association Press.

Trade literature
Industrial and commercial companies produce trade literature, which constitutes an important form of primary sources of scientific and technical literature. Trade literature aims to illustrate and describe equipment or goods relating to the manufacturers. They are issued by the manufacturers or dealers and are often very well produced. Trade literature may take the form of a technical bulletin, price list, data sheet, etc. UK  is one of the largest producers of trade literature. The continuous flow of sheets, folders, pamphlets, and bound volumes containing original data on new products and processes, which has not previously appeared in the regular literature, raises these manufacturer’s publications to the level of a primary source of scientific and technical information. A few examples of Trade Literature are:

1. Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Review. (1996). England: Argus Business Media.
2. Injection molding. (1993). Denver, CO: Canon Communications.
3. International Polymer Processing. (1986). Germany: Hanser Verlag.
4. Aviator Hotline. (2004). USA: Heartland Aviation Group.
5. Pea and Bean Progress. (2004). London: Processors and Growers Research Organization.

Theses and Dissertations
Theses and dissertations form a very important primary source of the science and technology literature. They provide evidence from original research and thus form an important category of documents for the researchers in the concerned field. By 1982, it was estimated that in UK alone “two-third of all theses were in S & T” (Grogan, 1982, p. 350). The main function of a thesis or dissertation is to demonstrate the candidate's grasp of a field. Almost half of all theses and dissertations appear later as articles in learned journals, conference papers, or even monographs, clearly demonstrating their value beyond the walls of the university. Some of examples are:

1. Adams, M. L. (2003). Chemically tailored polymeric miscelles for drug delivery. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
2. Robertson, M. P. (2001). Engineered regulation of an RNA Ligase ribozyme. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Texas, Austin.
3. Ackley, J. A. (1997). Weed management programs in potato, transported tomato and transplanted pepper with rimsulfuron and other herbicides. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia.
4. Wang, Shensheng. (2001). Weighting normalization in optimal predictive control. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Missouri, Columbia.
5. Bennett, Elena Michele. (2002). Patterns of Soil Phosphorus: concentrations and variability across an urbanizing agricultural landscape. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Secondary Sources
Organized works and compilations that derive from or refer to primary source literature make up the secondary source of science and technology information. They index the selected portions of the primary literature and aid in finding what has been published on a given subject generally or specifically, recently or retrospectively. Secondary sources generally represent the “worked-over” knowledge rather than new knowledge and organize primary literature in a more convenient form. They not only serve as repositories of digested facts, but also act as bibliographical keys to the primary sources, which include: encyclopedias, dictionaries, monographs, indexing and abstracting services, review of progress, handbooks, etc.
1. Encyclopedias
Encyclopedias are designed to give a summary of the background knowledge in a particular field. Scientists frequently turn to the encyclopedia for their everyday information needs. The task of an encyclopedia is to provide essential facts on a subject. They provide neither current nor exhaustive information, but furnish a vast wealth of facts which are easily found. Encyclopedias act as a bridge between the world of scholars on one side and an individual in search of information on the other. Some encyclopedias in science and technology are:

1. Finn, F. & Robinson, E. K. (1999). International Encyclopaedia of Ornithology. Delhi: Biotech Books.
2. Burton, M. & Burton, R. (1988). Encyclopaedia of the Animal Kingdom. London: Macdonald.
3. Trivedi, P. C. (2000). Encyclopaedia Botanica. Jaipur: Pointer.
4. Cowles Encyclopaedia of Science, Industry and technology. (1967). New York: Cowles Educational Corporation.
5. Parker, S. P. (Ed.). (1982). McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Chemistry (5thed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Dictionaries
Dictionaries list words of a language or a subject, arranged in alphabetical order with each word’s meaning, spelling, pronunciation etc. In science and technology the purpose of a dictionary is to define commonly used terms in the simplest manner. Etymology and pronunciation of terms may be included too. Thesauri, dictionaries of synonyms, provide an effective language interface between the user and a storage system. They help by grouping words according to their meaning rather than alphabetically. Thesauri are different from dictionaries, as they do not contain meanings or definitions of words, except to a very limited extent in the form of scope notes and synonyms. Some dictionaries in science and technology are:

1. Singh, O. P., & Srivastava, S. K. (1998). Dictionary of Entomology Plant Pathology and Nematology. New Delhi: Concept-Publishing.
2. Sharma, R. (Ed.). (2003). Management terminology. New Delhi: Lakshay.
3. Hartman-Peterson, P., & Pigford, J.N. (1991). Dictionary of Science. New Delhi: Universal BookStall.
4. Jain, A. (Ed.). (2003). Medical Terminology. New Delhi: Lakshay.
5. Read, P. G. (1982). Dictionary of Gemology. London: Butterworth Scientific.

3. Indexing Services
An index is an alphabetical list of the names, terms, formulae, and other significant items in a completed work, along with page numbers where the particular terms are found. It forms a backbone of any document. The index serves two purposes: to minimize time and effort in finding information and to maximize the searching success of users.  The index identifies the concepts or information present in a document and indicates their location in the volume. It gives users systematic and effective shortcuts to the information they need. One of the characteristic features of an indexing service of science and technology is an attempt to cover the whole field. Some of the examples are:

1. Biocontrol Science. (2000). Japan: Society for Antibacterial and antifungal agents.
2. Index to Chemical regulations. (2001). Washington, D.C.: The Bureau of National Affairs.
3. Index Medicus. (2000). Washington, D.C.:  National Library of Medicine.
4. American drug index. (2000). St. Louis, Missouri: Facts and Comparisons.
5. Current Physics Index. (2000). New York: American Institute of Physics.

4. Abstracting Services
Abstracts are summaries of the content of publications or articles. Abstracting services act like a current awareness tool for the scientists or technologists, and perform a dual purpose by alerting them of newly published work, avoiding time consuming perusal of the original documents. They can act as surrogates when the original document is difficult to obtain. An abstracting service allows retrieval of specific information. It was estimated that by 1982 about two thousand abstracting and indexing services were available in science and technology (Grogan, 1982, p. 184). Some examples of abstracts are given below:

1. Chemical Abstracts. (2000). Columbus, Ohio: Chemical Abstracts Service.
2. Chemoreception Abstracts. (2000). Paris: European Chemoreception Research Organization.
3. Abstracts on hygiene and communicable diseases. (2000). Wallingford, U.K.: CABI Publishing.
4. Acoustics Abstracts. (2000). London: Multi-Science Publishing.
5. Current literature on Science of Science. (2000). India: National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies.

Handbooks
Handbooks are the compilations of miscellaneous information in a compact and handy manner. These are most frequently used by the scientists and technologists and form handy information in other fields as well. Handbooks may contain data, procedures, tables, graphs, diagrams and illustrations, etc. They aim to bridge the gap between the normal textbook on theory and its practical application, thus facilitating economic and efficient practice. When a factual problem arises in a particular subject field, handbooks are consulted. It is believed that a library with no more than a sound collection of handbooks can answer 90% of quick reference queries as they contain vast amounts of diverse data, usually in a single volume. Handbooks can be called “one-volume reference libraries”. (Grogan, 1982, p.72). Some examples of handbooks are:

1. Bhatacharjee, S. K. (2000). Handbook of aromatic plants. Jaipur: Pointers Publications.
2. Bhatacharjee, S. K.(2004). Handbook of medical plants (4th rev.ed.). Jaipur: Pointers Publications. 
3. Handbook on Minerals and mines in India. (2003). New Delhi: India Book Center.
4. Bunch, B. (1996). Handbook of Current Science and Technology. Detroit: Gale Research.
5. Sharma, R. P. (Ed.). (2001). Handbook of Agriculture. New Delhi: Indian Council of Agricultural Research.

6. Review of progress
Because the scanning of indexes and abstracts proves a cumbersome job for scientists and technologists, reviews of progress are prepared. These provide an evaluative summary prepared by a specialist about the developments in a particular field over a given period. The reviews of progress are regarded as a pathway through the jungle of literature. Some of the reviews of progress in science and technology are:

1. Annual review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. (2000). Palo Alto, California: Annual Reviews.
2. Annual review of Physiology. (2000). Palo Alto, California: Annual Reviews
3. Advances in Botanical research. (2000). New York: Academic Press.
4. Annual review of Pathology. (2000). Palo Alto, California: Annual reviews.
5. Progress in Neurobiology. (2000). Oxford: Elsevier Science.

Monographs
Monographs are separately published reports of original research which might be too long, specialized, or unsuitable for publication in a standard journal. Monographs are self-contained in nature. These summarize the existing theory or practice before presenting the author’s original and previously unpublished work. Very often, a monograph is brought out as a part of a series. Some monographs in science and technology are:

1. Surface and Colloidal Science. (2004). New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
2. Dialogues on Work and Innovation. (2004). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
3. Building Blocks in Total Compensation. (2004). US: American Compensation Association.
4. Cambridge Studies in Management (2004). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Tertiary Sources
Access to all the primary documents is impossible for a researcher. Therefore, to have the list of sources and location of information of these primary documents, a number of secondary documents are published and made available. Though secondary documents act as keys to primary documents, they themselves are also quite large in number, making it difficult to go through each and every one of them.  Hence, the tertiary documents are used to locate secondary sources. They are unusual in that most of them do not carry subject knowledge at all. Some of the tertiary sources are: directories, yearbooks, and bibliography of bibliographies.
1. Directories
Directories are lists of names and addresses arranged for reference purposes and are generally organized in alphabetical order. A directory may include indexes by subject field, geographical location, or some other desirable classification. These make up the largest single category of reference books. Some of the directories in the field of science and technology are:

1. State-By-State Biotechnology directory. (1990). Rockville, Maryland: Biotechnology Information Institute.
2. Biogeographical Society of Japan. Bulletin. (2000) Japan: Biogeographical Society of Japan.
3. Federal Biotechnology transfer Directory. (2000). Rockville, Maryland: Biotechnology Information Institute.
4. Information Industry Directory. (2000). Farmington Hills, Michigan: The Gale Group,
5. Medical Company Guide to Japan. (2000). Japan: Chemical daily.

2. Yearbooks
Yearbooks are reference books which describe the events pertaining to a particular year. In various disciplines of science and technology, much of the task of digesting the developments of a year is performed by annual reviews of progress, and this function is performed by yearbooks as well. In this way they form an important source of information in the field.  Some examples of yearbooks are:

1. Butler, D. (Ed.). (2001). The Nature Yearbook of Science and Technology. U.K.: Nature publishing group.
2. The World Competitiveness Yearbook. (1999). Switzerland: IMD.
3. Yearbook of Clinical Microbiology. (2000). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
4. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology. (2000). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
5. Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics of Bangladesh. (2000). Bangladesh: Bureau of Statistics.

Bibliography of Bibliographies
For almost every subject, a significantly large number of bibliographies have appeared. The vast quantity of bibliographic information available makes it impossible for users to know the precise number and location of bibliographies available. Therefore it is necessary that there is some kind of control over bibliographies being published in different subjects. A bibliography of bibliographies serves this purpose. Some of the well-known bibliographies in S & T are as follows:

1. A Botanical Bibliography: A guide to bibliographic material applicable to Botany. (1970). Minneapolis, MN: Burgess.
2. Basterman, T. (1971). Physical Sciences: A bibliography of bibliographies. Lanham, MD: Roman Littlefield.
3. Ingles, E. (Ed.). (1994). Bibliography of Canadian bibliographies. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
4. Basterman, T. (1965-67). A World Bibliography of Bibliographies and of Bibliographical Catalogues, Calendars, Abstracts, Digests, Indexes and the like (4th ed.).. Geneve: Societas Bibliographica.
5. Tomey, A. F. (1977). A World Bibliography of Bibliographies, 1964-74. Lanham, MD: Roman and Littlefield.

References

Grogan, D. (1982). Science and Technology: An introduction to the literature (4th. ed.). London: Clive Bingley.
Saunderson, K. M. (1972). Patent as a source of technical information. Aslib Proceedings. 24, 244-254.

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